Brief+History+of+Instructional+Design

= media type="custom" key="24123844" = = Brief History of Instructional Design  =

Constructivist approach
==[[Module 9#Seymour%20Papert|Seymour Papert  ]]==

Summary
==[[Module 9#Links|Links  ]]==

==In 1950, theoretical models of learning were formulated. The Science of Learning and the Art of Teaching (1954) by //**B. F. Skinner**// underlined the importance of stimulus-response (S-R), feedback, and reinforcement principles in education. These principles were incorporated into Skinner's implementations of programmed instruction.==

==Skinner developed programmed instruction, where through careful sequencing, students responded to material broken into small steps. The steps were similar to what a skilled tutor would ask of a student working with one student at a time. The first responses of each sequence were prompted, but as performance improved, less and less help was given. By the end, a student was doing something he or she could not have done at the beginning.==

=Benjamin Bloom=

He defined the three domains of learning:
==Bloom found that over 95% of the test questions require students to think only at the lowest possible level--the recall of information. Bloom identified six levels within the cognitive domain, from the simple recall or recognition of facts, as the lowest level, through increasingly more complex and abstract mental levels, to the highest order which is classified as evaluation.==
 * ==//**Cognitive**// (what we know or think)==
 * ==**//Psychomotor//** (what we do, physically)==
 * ==//**Affective**// (what we feel, or what attitudes we have).==


 * ==//**Knowledge**// (recall of data, recall previously learned material): arrange, define, duplicate, label, list, memorize, name, order, recognize, relate, recall, repeat, reproduce state.==
 * ==//**Comprehension**// (the ability to grasp meaning, explain, restate ideas): classify, describe, discuss, explain, express, identify, indicate, locate, recognize, report, restate, review, select, translate,==
 * ==//**Application**// (using learned material in new situations): apply, choose, demonstrate, dramatize, employ, illustrate, interpret, operate, practice, schedule, sketch, solve, use, write.==
 * ==**//Analysis//** (separating items, or separate material into component parts and show relationships between parts): analyze, appraise, calculate, categorize, compare, contrast, criticize, differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, examine, experiment, question, test.==
 * ==//**Synthesis**// (the ability to put together separate ideas to establish new relationships): arrange, assemble, collect, compose, construct, create, design, develop, formulate, manage, organize, plan, prepare, propose, set up, write.==
 * ==//**Evaluation**// (involves reviewing and asserting evidence, facts, and ideas, then making appropriate statements and judgments): appraise, argue, assess, attach, choose compare, defend estimate, judge, predict, rate, core, select, support, value, evaluate.==

Using Bloom’s Taxonomy
==Although course design involves a complex combination of pedagogical materials and activities, Bloom’s Taxonomy provides a straightforward way to frame language for classroom activities. It is important to keep in mind that even though the concepts are linear in the taxonomy, there is often overlap between skills. An activity or project that might be in the creating domain, for example, can also include skills such as analyzing, applying and remembering.==



==The following chart describes each skill in greater detail giving sample language that can be used can use to scaffold and construct activities for the classroom, as well as examples of student-centered activities that can be used in distance education.==

 **conclude** meaning from new information. || // distinguish, compare/contrast, examine, break down, identify, infer // || * Creating Venn Diagrams
 * ** SKILL ** || ** DEFINITION ** || ** SAMPLE LANGUAGE PROMPTS ** || ** SAMPLE ACTIVITIES ** ||
 * ** REMEMBERING ** || Students ** recollect **information they have received. || // list, define, describe, identify, match, label // || * Creating outlines/bulleted lists/charts
 * Bookmarking
 * Brainstorming (using mind-maps or other graphic organizers) ||
 * ** UNDERSTANDING ** || Students ** explain **information and concepts. || // explain, paraphrase, summarize, interpret, give an example of // || * Engaging in discussion, blog, VoiceThread or wiki summaries of content
 * Creating paraphrases or abstracts based on content
 * Creating and posting quiz questions for other students ||
 * ** APPLYING ** || Students ** utilize ** new information. || // apply, construct, predict, solve, use // || * Generating survey questions
 * Asking interview or survey questions
 * Creating projects (e.g. marketing project, presentations)
 * Creating a blog post/wiki entry
 * Doing problem sets ||
 * ** ANALYZING ** || Students ** break-down, examine and **
 * Analyzing charts, graphs, case studies
 * Researching sources for term papers
 * <span style="font-family: inherit; font-family: inherit; vertical-align: baseline; vertical-align: baseline;">Commenting on discussion, VoiceThread or blog posts ||
 * ** EVALUATING ** || Students ** assess ** their opinions of and reactions to content. || // compare, evaluate, interpret, defend, support, explain, justify // || * <span style="font-family: inherit; font-family: inherit; vertical-align: baseline; vertical-align: baseline;">Writing persuasive essays
 * <span style="font-family: inherit; font-family: inherit; vertical-align: baseline; vertical-align: baseline;">Creating critiques/critical reviews
 * <span style="font-family: inherit; font-family: inherit; vertical-align: baseline; vertical-align: baseline;">Debating/discussing via forums or chat
 * <span style="font-family: inherit; font-family: inherit; vertical-align: baseline; vertical-align: baseline;">Commenting on discussions, VoiceThread or blog posts
 * <span style="font-family: inherit; font-family: inherit; vertical-align: baseline; vertical-align: baseline;">Completing self or peer reviews ||
 * ** CREATING ** || Students ** construct **something new using fundamental principles from course materials. || // combine, create, construct, devise, design, compose, explain, compile // || * <span style="font-family: inherit; font-family: inherit; vertical-align: baseline; vertical-align: baseline;">Creating how-to manuals, podcasts, webinars, collaborative wikis, multimedia presentations
 * <span style="font-family: inherit; font-family: inherit; vertical-align: baseline; vertical-align: baseline;">Doing simulations
 * <span style="font-family: inherit; font-family: inherit; vertical-align: baseline; vertical-align: baseline;">Designing a new approach to a problem
 * <span style="font-family: inherit; font-family: inherit; vertical-align: baseline; vertical-align: baseline;">Doing project-based tasks (creating presentations, survey projects, portfolios, capstone projects) ||

@http://online.pasadena.edu/faculty/hb/coursedesign/
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Robert Glaser


==In 1962, //**Robert Glaser**// introduced the concept of "instructional design" -- Individually Prescribed Instruction (IPI), an approach where the results of a learner's placement test are used to plan learner-specific instruction.==

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==In 1962, //**Robert Gagné**// published "Military Training and Principles of Learning" -- he differentiated psychomotor skills, verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, and attitudes. Later, he included nine instructional events that detail the conditions necessary for learning to occur.==

1. Gain attention
==In order for any learning to take place, you must first capture the attention of the student. A multimedia program that begins with an animated title screen sequence accompanied by sound effects or music startles the senses with auditory or visual stimuli. An even better way to capture students' attention is to start each lesson with a thought-provoking question or interesting fact. Curiosity motivates students to learn.==

2. Inform learners of objectives
==Early in each lesson students should encounter a list of learning objectives. This initiates the internal process of expectancy and helps motivate the learner to complete the lesson. These objectives should form the basis for assessment and possible certification as well. Typically, learning objectives are presented in the form of "Upon completing this lesson you will be able to. . . ."==

3. Stimulate recall of prior learning
==Associating new information with prior knowledge can facilitate the learning process. It is easier for learners to encode and store information in long-term memory when there are links to personal experience and knowledge. A simple way to stimulate recall is to ask questions about previous experiences.==

4. Present the content
==This event of instruction is where the new content is actually presented to the learner. Content should be chunked and organized meaningfully, and typically is explained and then demonstrated. A variety of media should be used if possible, including text, graphics, audio narration, and video.==

5. Provide "learning guidance"
==To help learners encode information for long-term storage, additional guidance should be provided along with the presentation of new content. Guidance strategies include the use of examples, non-examples, case studies, graphical representations, mnemonics, and analogies.==

6. Elicit performance (practice)
==In this event of instruction, the learner is required to practice the new skill or behavior. Eliciting performance provides an opportunity for learners to confirm their correct understanding, and the repetition further increases the likelihood of retention.==

7. Provide feedback
==As learners practice new behavior it is important to provide specific and immediate feedback of their performance. Unlike questions in a post-test, exercises within tutorials should be used for comprehension and encoding purposes, not for formal scoring. Additional guidance and answers provided at this stage are called formative feedback.==

8. Assess performance
==Upon completing instructional modules, students should be given the opportunity to take (or be required to take) a post-test or final assessment. This assessment should be completed without the ability to receive additional coaching, feedback, or hints. Mastery of material, or certification, is typically granted after achieving a certain score or percent correct. A commonly accepted level of mastery is 80% to 90% correct.==

9. Enhance retention and transfer to the job
==Determining whether or not the skills learned from a training program are ever applied back on the job often remains a mystery to training managers - and a source of consternation for senior executives. Effective training programs have a "performance" focus, incorporating design and media that facilitate retention and transfer to the job. The repetition of learned concepts is a tried and true means of aiding retention, although often disliked by students. Creating electronic or online job-aids, references, templates, and wizards are other ways of aiding performance.==

Computer-Assisted Instruction


==In the 1960‘s, **Patrick Suppes** conducted his initial investigations  into computer-assisted instruction (CAI) at Stanford University. CAI provided learner feedback, branching, and response tracking – aspects were later incorporated into the PLATO system in the 1970's and continue guide the development of today's instructional software.==

==As opposed to the behavioralist perspective that emphasizes learning objectives, the constructivist approach emerged that holds that learners construct their understanding of reality from interpretations of their experiences.==

==Constructivism views knowledge as being created or “constructed” by learners in their own minds through interaction with other people and the world around them. This theory is most closely associated with //**Jean Piaget.**// In the 1960's, Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget studied the cognitive development of children, identifying several discrete phases they go through as they grow. Very young children are only able to process concrete, operational information; they are incapable of thinking abstractly, reflecting on the past, or projecting into the future. Older children develop these abilities over time.==

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==In the mid 1960s Seymour Papert, a mathematician who had been working with Piaget in Geneva, came to the United States where he co-founded the Artificial Intelligence Laboratory and created LOGO, a simple computer-programming language that let children control the movement of a simulated turtle by giving it simple commands such as "forward 10" and "turn right 90 degrees."==

Logo
==The most popular Logo environments have involved the Turtle, originally a robotic creature that sat on the floor and could be directed to move around by typing commands at the computer. Soon the Turtle migrated to the computer graphics screen where it is used to draw shapes, designs, and pictures.==

Logo has also been incorporated into //**HyperStudio,**// the widely popular multimedia program for Macintosh and Windows.
==HyperStudio is a multi-media development software package that allows you to create multi-media presentations easily and quickly. @http://www.hyperstudio.com/showcase.aspx==

==Generalist will be aligned with managerial activities. Since the field is becoming too broad, this option allows practitioners to oversee the development of instructional projects, rather than narrow their efforts exclusively on assessment, analysis, design, development, implementation, evaluation or continuous improvement.==

Summary

 * ==In 1950, B. F. Skinner underlined the importance of stimulus-response (S-R), feedback, and reinforcement principles in education.==
 * ==After the war, the success of the wartime training model was replicated in business and industrial training, and to a lesser extent in the primary and secondary classroom.==
 * ==In 1955, Benjamin Bloom published a taxonomy and defined the three domains of learning:==
 * 1) ==Cognitive (what we know or think)==
 * 2) ==Psychomotor (what we do, physically)==
 * 3) ==Affective (what we feel, or what attitudes we have).==
 * ==In the 1960's, psychologist Jean Piaget studied the cognitive development of children, identifying several discrete phases they go through as they grow.==
 * ==In the 1970s Seymour Papert drew on Piaget's ideas to create LOGO, a simple computer-programming language.==
 * ==In the 1980s and 1990s, the growing influence of constructivist theories in academic culture has begun. Constructivism views knowledge as being created or “constructed” by learners in their own minds through interaction with other people and the world around them.==
 * ==In the future, instructional designers are likely to choose one of two paths: specialist (will focus on one aspect of learning or instruction and act as consultants) or generalist (will be aligned with managerial activities).==

Leigh, D. A Brief History of Instructional Design. @http://www.pignc-ispi.com/articles/education/brief%20history.htm
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